/**
\defgroup uip The uIP TCP/IP stack
@{

The uIP TCP/IP stack provides Internet communication abilities to
Contiki.

\section uip-introduction uIP introduction

With the success of the Internet, the TCP/IP protocol suite has become
a global standard for communication. TCP/IP is the underlying protocol
used for web page transfers, e-mail transmissions, file transfers, and
peer-to-peer networking over the Internet. For embedded systems, being
able to run native TCP/IP makes it possible to connect the system
directly to an intranet or even the global Internet. Embedded devices
with full TCP/IP support will be first-class network citizens, thus
being able to fully communicate with other hosts in the network.

Traditional TCP/IP implementations have required far too much
resources both in terms of code size and memory usage to be useful in
small 8 or 16-bit systems. Code size of a few hundred kilobytes and
RAM requirements of several hundreds of kilobytes have made it
impossible to fit the full TCP/IP stack into systems with a few tens
of kilobytes of RAM and room for less than 100 kilobytes of
code.

The uIP implementation is designed to have only the absolute minimal
set of features needed for a full TCP/IP stack. It can only handle a
single network interface and does not implement UDP, but focuses on
the IP, ICMP and TCP protocols. uIP is written in the C programming
language.

Many other TCP/IP implementations for small systems assume that the
embedded device always will communicate with a full-scale TCP/IP
implementation running on a workstation-class machine. Under this
assumption, it is possible to remove certain TCP/IP mechanisms that
are very rarely used in such situations. Many of those mechanisms are
essential, however, if the embedded device is to communicate with
another equally limited device, e.g., when running distributed
peer-to-peer services and protocols. uIP is designed to be RFC
compliant in order to let the embedded devices to act as first-class
network citizens. The uIP TCP/IP implementation that is not tailored
for any specific application.


\section uip-tcpip TCP/IP communication

The full TCP/IP suite consists of numerous protocols, ranging from low
level protocols such as ARP which translates IP addresses to MAC
addresses, to application level protocols such as SMTP that is used to
transfer e-mail. The uIP is mostly concerned with the TCP and IP
protocols and upper layer protocols will be refered to as ``the
application''. Lower layer protocols are often implemented in hardware
or firmware and will be referred to as ``the network device'' that are
controlled by the network device driver.

TCP provides a reliable byte stream to the upper layer protocols. It
breaks the byte stream into appropriately sized segments and each
segment is sent in its own IP packet. The IP packets are sent out on
the network by the network device driver. If the destination is not on
the physically connected network, the IP packet is forwarded onto
another network by a router that is situated between the two
networks. If the maximum packet size of the other network is smaller
than the size of the IP packet, the packet is fragmented into smaller
packets by the router. If possible, the size of the TCP segments are
chosen so that fragmentation is minimized. The final recipient of the
packet will have to reassemble any fragmented IP packets before they
can be passed to higher layers.

The formal requirements for the protocols in the TCP/IP stack is
specified in a number of RFC documents published by the Internet
Engineering Task Force, IETF. Each of the protocols in the stack is
defined in one more RFC documents and RFC1122 collects
all requirements and updates the previous RFCs. 

The RFC1122 requirements can be divided into two categories; those
that deal with the host to host communication and those that deal with
communication between the application and the networking stack. An
example of the first kind is "A TCP MUST be able to receive a TCP
option in any segment" and an example of the second kind is "There
MUST be a mechanism for reporting soft TCP error conditions to the
application." A TCP/IP implementation that violates requirements of
the first kind may not be able to communicate with other TCP/IP
implementations and may even lead to network failures. Violation of
the second kind of requirements will only affect the communication
within the system and will not affect host-to-host communication.

In our implementations, we have implemented all RFC requirements that
affect host-to-host communication. However, in order to reduce code
size, we have removed certain mechanisms in the interface between the
application and the stack, such as the soft error reporting mechanism
and dynamically configurable type-of-service bits for TCP
connections. Since there are only very few applications that make use
of those features they can be removed without loss of generality.

\section uip-memory Memory management

In the architectures for which uIP is intended, RAM is the most
scarce resource. With only a few kilobytes of RAM available for the
TCP/IP stack to use, mechanisms used in traditional TCP/IP cannot be
directly applied.


The uIP stack does not use explicit dynamic memory
allocation. Instead, it uses a single global buffer for holding
packets and has a fixed table for holding connection state. The global
packet buffer is large enough to contain one packet of maximum
size. When a packet arrives from the network, the device driver places
it in the global buffer and calls the TCP/IP stack. If the packet
contains data, the TCP/IP stack will notify the corresponding
application. Because the data in the buffer will be overwritten by the
next incoming packet, the application will either have to act
immediately on the data or copy the data into a secondary buffer for
later processing. The packet buffer will not be overwritten by new
packets before the application has processed the data. Packets that
arrive when the application is processing the data must be queued,
either by the network device or by the device driver. Most single-chip
Ethernet controllers have on-chip buffers that are large enough to
contain at least 4 maximum sized Ethernet frames. Devices that are
handled by the processor, such as RS-232 ports, can copy incoming
bytes to a separate buffer during application processing. If the
buffers are full, the incoming packet is dropped. This will cause
performance degradation, but only when multiple connections are
running in parallel. This is because uIP advertises a very small
receiver window, which means that only a single TCP segment will be in
the network per connection.

In uIP, the same global packet buffer that is used for incoming
packets is also used for the TCP/IP headers of outgoing data. If the
application sends dynamic data, it may use the parts of the global
packet buffer that are not used for headers as a temporary storage
buffer. To send the data, the application passes a pointer to the data
as well as the length of the data to the stack. The TCP/IP headers are
written into the global buffer and once the headers have been
produced, the device driver sends the headers and the application data
out on the network. The data is not queued for
retransmissions. Instead, the application will have to reproduce the
data if a retransmission is necessary.

The total amount of memory usage for uIP depends heavily on the
applications of the particular device in which the implementations are
to be run. The memory configuration determines both the amount of
traffic the system should be able to handle and the maximum amount of
simultaneous connections. A device that will be sending large e-mails
while at the same time running a web server with highly dynamic web
pages and multiple simultaneous clients, will require more RAM than a
simple Telnet server. It is possible to run the uIP implementation
with as little as 200 bytes of RAM, but such a configuration will
provide extremely low throughput and will only allow a small number of
simultaneous connections.

\section uip-api Application program interface (API)

The Application Program Interface (API) defines the way the
application program interacts with the TCP/IP stack. The most commonly
used API for TCP/IP is the BSD socket API which is used in most Unix
systems and has heavily influenced the Microsoft Windows WinSock
API. Because the socket API uses stop-and-wait semantics, it requires
support from an underlying multitasking operating system. Since the
overhead of task management, context switching and allocation of stack
space for the tasks might be too high in the intended uIP target
architectures, the BSD socket interface is not suitable for our
purposes.

Instead, uIP uses an event driven interface where the application is
invoked in response to certain events. An application running on top
of uIP is implemented as a C function that is called by uIP in
response to certain events. uIP calls the application when data is
received, when data has been successfully delivered to the other end
of the connection, when a new connection has been set up, or when data
has to be retransmitted. The application is also periodically polled
for new data. The application program provides only one callback
function; it is up to the application to deal with mapping different
network services to different ports and connections. Because the
application is able to act on incoming data and connection requests as
soon as the TCP/IP stack receives the packet, low response times can
be achieved even in low-end systems.

uIP is different from other TCP/IP stacks in that it requires help
from the application when doing retransmissions. Other TCP/IP stacks
buffer the transmitted data in memory until the data is known to be
successfully delivered to the remote end of the connection. If the
data needs to be retransmitted, the stack takes care of the
retransmission without notifying the application. With this approach,
the data has to be buffered in memory while waiting for an
acknowledgment even if the application might be able to quickly
regenerate the data if a retransmission has to be made.

In order to reduce memory usage, uIP utilizes the fact that the
application may be able to regenerate sent data and lets the
application take part in retransmissions. uIP does not keep track of
packet contents after they have been sent by the device driver, and
uIP requires that the application takes an active part in performing
the retransmission. When uIP decides that a segment should be
retransmitted, it calls the application with a flag set indicating
that a retransmission is required. The application checks the
retransmission flag and produces the same data that was previously
sent. From the application's standpoint, performing a retransmission
is not different from how the data originally was sent. Therefore the
application can be written in such a way that the same code is used
both for sending data and retransmitting data. Also, it is important
to note that even though the actual retransmission operation is
carried out by the application, it is the responsibility of the stack
to know when the retransmission should be made. Thus the complexity of
the application does not necessarily increase because it takes an
active part in doing retransmissions.

\subsection uip-appevents Application events

The application must be implemented as a C function, UIP_APPCALL(),
that uIP calls whenever an event occurs. Each event has a corresponing
test function that is used to distinguish between different
events. The functions are implemented as C macros that will evaluate
to either zero or non-zero. Note that certain events can happen in
conjunction with each other (i.e., new data can arrive at the same
time as data is acknowledged).

\subsection uip-connstate The connection pointer

When the application is called by uIP, the global variable uip_conn is
set to point to the uip_conn structure for the current
connection. This can be used to distinguish between different
services. A typical use would be to inspect the uip_conn->lport (the
local TCP port number) to decide which service the connection should
provide. For instance, an application might decide to act as an HTTP
server if the value of uip_conn->lport is equal to 80 and act as a
TELNET server if the value is 23.

\subsection uip-recvdata Receiving data

If the uIP test function uip_newdata() is non-zero, the remote host of
the connection has sent new data. The uip_appdata pointer point to the
actual data. The size of the data is obtained through the uIP function
uip_datalen(). The data is not buffered by uIP, but will be
overwritten after the application function returns, and the
application will therefor have to either act directly on the incoming
data, or by itself copy the incoming data into a buffer for later
processing.

\subsection uip-senddata Sending data

When sending data, the application must check the number of available
bytes in the send window and adjust the length of the data to be sent
accordingly. The size of the send window is dictated by the memory
configuration as well as the buffer space announced by the remote
host. If no buffer space is available, the application has to defer
the send and wait until later.

The application sends data by using the uIP function uip_send(). The
uip_send() function takes two arguments; a pointer to the data to be
sent and the length of the data. If the application needs RAM space
for producing the actual data that should be sent, the packet buffer
(pointed to by the uip_appdata pointer) can be used for this purpose.

The application can send only one chunk of data at a time on a
connection and it is not possible to call uip_send() more than once
per application invocation; only the data from the last call will be
sent.

\subsection uip-rexmitdata Retransmitting data

Retransmissions are driven by the periodic TCP timer. Every time the
periodic timer is invoked, the retransmission timer for each
connection is decremented. If the timer reaches zero, a retransmission
should be made. As uIP does not keep track of packet contents after they have
been sent by the device driver, uIP requires that the
application takes an active part in performing the
retransmission. When uIP decides that a segment should be
retransmitted, the application function is called with the
uip_rexmit() flag set, indicating that a retransmission is
required.

The application must check the uip_rexmit() flag and produce the same
data that was previously sent. From the application's standpoint,
performing a retransmission is not different from how the data
originally was sent. Therefor, the application can be written in such
a way that the same code is used both for sending data and
retransmitting data. Also, it is important to note that even though
the actual retransmission operation is carried out by the application,
it is the responsibility of the stack to know when the retransmission
should be made. Thus the complexity of the application does not
necessarily increase because it takes an active part in doing
retransmissions.

\subsection uip-closing Closing connections

The application closes the current connection by calling the
uip_close() during an application call. This will cause the connection
to be cleanly closed. In order to indicate a fatal error, the
application might want to abort the connection and does so by calling
the uip_abort() function.

If the connection has been closed by the remote end, the test function
uip_closed() is true. The application may then do any necessary
cleanups.

\subsection uip-errors Reporting errors

There are two fatal errors that can happen to a connection, either
that the connection was aborted by the remote host, or that the
connection retransmitted the last data too many times and has been
aborted. uIP reports this by calling the application function. The
application can use the two test functions uip_aborted() and
uip_timedout() to test for those error conditions.

\subsection uip-polling Polling

When a connection is idle, uIP polls the application every time the
periodic timer fires. The application uses the test function
uip_poll() to check if it is being polled by uIP.

The polling event has two purposes. The first is to let the
application periodically know that a connection is idle, which allows
the application to close connections that have been idle for too
long. The other purpose is to let the application send new data that
has been produced. The application can only send data when invoked by
uIP, and therefore the poll event is the only way to send data on an
otherwise idle connection.

\subsection uip-listen Listening ports

uIP maintains a list of listening TCP ports. A new port is opened for
listening with the uip_listen() function. When a connection request
arrives on a listening port, uIP creates a new connection and calls
the application function. The test function uip_connected() is true if
the application was invoked because a new connection was created.

The application can check the lport field in the uip_conn structure to
check to which port the new connection was connected.

\subsection uip-connect Opening connections

New connections can be opened from within
uIP by the function uip_connect(). This function
allocates a new connection and sets a flag in the connection state
which will open a TCP connection to the specified IP address and port
the next time the connection is polled by uIP. The uip_connect()
function returns
a pointer to the uip_conn structure for the new
connection. If there are no free connection slots, the function
returns NULL. 

The function uip_ipaddr() may be used to pack an IP address into the
two element 16-bit array used by uIP to represent IP addresses.

Two examples of usage are shown below. The first example shows how to
open a connection to TCP port 8080 of the remote end of the current
connection. If there are not enough TCP connection slots to allow a
new connection to be opened, the uip_connect() function returns NULL
and the current connection is aborted by uip_abort(). 

\code
void connect_example1_app(void) {
   if(uip_connect(uip_conn->ripaddr, 8080) == NULL) {
      uip_abort();
   }
}   
\endcode

The second example shows how to open a new connection to a specific IP
address. No error checks are made in this example.

\code
void connect_example2(void) {
   u16_t ipaddr[2];

   uip_ipaddr(ipaddr, 192,168,0,1);
   uip_connect(ipaddr, 8080);
}
\endcode

\section uip-drivers uIP device drivers

From the network device driver's standpoint, uIP consists of two C
functions: uip_input() and uip_periodic(). The uip_input() function
should be called by the device driver when an IP packet has been
received and put into the uip_buf packet buffer. The uip_input()
function will process the packet, and when it returns an outbound
packet may have been placed in the same uip_buf packet buffer
(indicated by the uip_len variable being non-zero). The device driver
should then send out this packet onto the network.

The uip_periodic() function should be invoked periodically once per
connection by the device driver, typically one per second. This
function is used by uIP to drive protocol timers and retransmissions,
and when it returns it may have placed an outbound packet in the
uip_buf buffer.


*/

/** @} */